Define Caste

Define Caste
The Sociologists define a caste as follows:
A caste is a hereditary, endogamous, usually localized group, having a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. The relations between castes are governed, among other things, by the concepts of pollution and purity, and generally, maximum commensality occurs within the caste.

On spatial level, a caste is usually segmented into several sub-castes and each sub-caste is endogamous. This segmentation is probably the result of a long historical process in which groups continually fissioned off. As a result of this long process of development there has come into existence several cognate groups usually found scattered over a limited geographical region, each of which retains a sense of identity as well as its linkage with other similar groups. Hence, a perception that a caste has its limited social boundaries is limited view meant for a particular time and place only. It, under historic impact, keeps changing the social boundaries and even the spatial spread through the process of historic fission.

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Source:
Srinivas M. N., Caste in Modern India and other essays, 1962, Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, pp 2,3. Chapter 1, Introduction.

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Define Sanskritization

"The caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been possible, and especially so in the middle regions of the hierarchy. A low caste was able, in a generation or two, to rise to a higher position in the hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, and by Sanskritizing its ritual and pantheon. In short, it took over, as far as possible, the customs, rites, and beliefs of the Brahmins, and the adoption of the Brahminic way of life by a low caste seems to have been frequent, though theoretically forbidden. This process has been called -'Sanskritization'.”

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Source:
Srinivas M. N., Caste in Modern India and other essays, 1962,Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, pp 42. Chapter 2, A Note on Sanskritization and Westernization. Quoted by M. N. Srinivas from 'Religions and Society among the Coorgs of South India, Oxford, 1952, p.32.

Shopping is a learning experience. Enjoy HERE

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Taregna of Aryabhatta

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Taregna gets its 4 minutes of fame - India - NEWS - The Times of India

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Define Antebelleum America

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The word Antebellum is a Latin word. The meaning of the word is before war. The prefix 'ante' stands for before and 'bellum' is Latin word for war. Thus it means - before the war. Here the war refers to the Civil War of America. Therefore, the Antebellum America means before the American Civil War 1860. In the History and Historiography of the United States of America, the phrase Antebellum America is used in lieu of pre-Civil War period. When the American historians use this phrase, invariably their stress is on the rise of sectionalism in America before the Civil War with its social, economic, cultural, religious, political and constitutional dimensions. Among some American scholars, it is generally treated as cherished memories of old South states which vanished with the Civil War. Among the English literature scholars of America, the Antebellum America symbolized a classic age of culture and American civilization. The critics of that period counter it with the criticism of slavery as practiced in American South States before the Civil War. Hence, on one hand, it is studied as a cherished glorious period of American developments and on other hand, criticism of it emphasizes it as a phase of pre-colonial hangover among revolutionary and republican Americans. In short, in its theme, it is story of moral conflicts carried from colonial period and American response to it.

The American historians allocate different time spans for the Antebellum America. Generally, they discuss the happenings since Mexican American War and the Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854 ending with Civil War as the period of Antebellum America. With a different set of sources and ideologies, the dimension of the time span changes for other set of historians and they generally study the period extending from 1812 to 1860 as the period of Antebellum America. Somehow, the period succeeding Civil War, which is generally termed as the Reconstruction period, refers to the end of the phase of American way of life which is studied under Antebellum America phrase. Therein, one can find the significance of the term Antebellum America in American history. No doubt a sense of Romanticism has been be attached to Antebellum America which is perhaps best represented by the novel of Margret Mitchell “Gone with the Wind (1936) and the movie based on that novel that was released in 1939.

Similarly, many historians prefer to study the period from 1784 or with some qualification of the selection of the sources, from 1789 to 1865 as one single whole chapter in the history of America. They do not use the word pre-Civil War. For them, the Revolution of America was the success of Americanism based on liberty and freedom, the freedom for labour and wealth. They prefer to call it Antebellum America wherein they suggest that it was one of the phase of cultural heritage of America.

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Course: History, M. A. I, History, Punjab University Chandigarh. Paper III, The USA
Category: Short Notes
Author: Asst Professor Sumir Sharma, Department of Post Graduate History, Arya College, Ludhiana

Awards For September 2006 Test For M. A. II, Social and Cultural History of India 1757 to 1947, Paper IV

The Awards List for the 27 students who had appeared in the September Test, 2006, for Paper II, Social and Cultural History of India 1757 to 1947 of M. A. II is given below.

The answer sheets will be shown for verification on October 09, 2006 in Room no. 8, Period 7.

Sr. no	Name	Roll no.	Marks
1	Narinder Singh Dhaliwal	2001	25
2	Manjeet Kaur Bhullar	2002	3
3	Harneet Singh Kochar	2004	35
4	Vishal Sharma	2005	33
5	Amit Sharma	2006	33
6	Dharamjit Singh Gill	2007	2
7	Sukhjinder Singh Garewal	2009	3
8	Ramandeep Kaur Cheema	2010	20
9	Raj Kumar Sharma	2011	15
10		2013	Zero
11	Upinder Singh	2014	18
12	Baldev Raj	2015	11
13	Bakhshish Singh Duggal	2018	18
14	Gursharan Singh Sekhon	2020	8
15	Narinder Singh Dhaliwal	2021	18
16	Lakhbir Singh Gill	2023	29
17	Gurpreet Singh Gill	2024	34
18	Gurteej Singh	2025	20
19	Ranjit Singh Rai	2026	17
20	Appar Singh Pannu	2028	27+2=29
21		2029	3
22	Harnish	2031	Zero
23	Gurdeep Singh	2032	Zero
24	Gurpreet Singh Randhawa	2033	2
25		2034	14
26		2035	13
27		2037	1

Edit Report:
Serial no. 20, Roll no. 2028, Name Appar Singh, the marks has been increased by 2 and now the total stands at 29 after verification of the answers. Date: 09-10-2006

Awards For September 2006 Test For M. A. I, The USA Paper III

The Awards List for the 37 students who had appeared in the September Test, 2006, for Paper III, The USA, 1864 – 1973 is given below.

The answer sheets will be shown for verification on October 09, 2006 in Room no. 9, Period 4.


Special Note: Two students bearing Roll no 1760 and 1761 have never attended the class but appeared in the Examination.

Sr. no	Name	Roll no	Marks Obtained
1	Sukhbir Singh Garewal	1703	11
2	Maninder Singh Khangura	1704	11
3	Amandeep Singh Aulakh	1705	01
4	Dharampal Singh	1708	01
5	Bhupinder Jeet Singh Mangat	1709	zero
6		1710	zero
7	Kuldeep Singh Panjeta	1712	03
8	Harpreet Singh Garewal	1714	04
9	Paramjeet Singh Sidhu	1718	13
10	Didar Singh	1719	01
11	Devinder Singh Deol	1720	02
12		1722	zero
13	Satnam Singh Sandhu	1723	20
14	Manjeet Singh	1726	01
15	Amandeep Singh Gill	1727	01
16	Parminder	1728	zero
17	Inderveer Singh	1729	02
18	Nirmal Singh	1730	01
19	Avtar Singh Sekhon	1732	07
20	Iqbaljit Singh	1733	16
21	Beant Kaur Garewal	1734	22
22	Rupinder Kaur Garewal	1735	20
23	Harjaab Singh Dhaliwal	1736	04
24		1742	01
25	Devinderpal Singh	1743	06
26	Yadvinder Singh Garewal	1745	12
27	Hardeep Singh Dhaliwal	1747	04
28	Jagdev Singh Uppal	1748	04
29	Gurdeep Singh Sekhon	1749	20
30	Sukhpreet Singh Bhullar	1750	zero
31	Rinku Bains	1751	16
32		1752	zero
33	Sukhdeep Singh	1753	04
34		1757	03
35	Amardeep Singh Bhuttar	1758	02
36		1760	11
37		1761	1

Lecture Statement M A II The Social & Cultural History of India 1757 to 1947

Given below is the lecture statement ending on September 19, 2006 for the class M A II Paper The Social & Cultural History of India 1757 to 1947 held in Room no 8 in period 6 It is for the session 2006-2007

Total Lectures delivered were 17 The required minimum lectures were 75% of the total Delivered The minimum lectures required were taken equivalent to 12 Those who have attended less than 12 lectures are having deficiency of lectures.

Sr no	Name	Roll No	Total Attended
1	Narinder Singh Dhaliwal	2001	17
2	Manjeet Kaur Bhullar	2002	17
3	Pawandeep Kaur Kang	2003	17
4	Harneet Singh Kochar	2004	17
5	Vishal Sharma	2005	17
6	Amit Sharma	2006	17
7	Dharamjit Singh Gill	2007	17
8	Manpreet Kaur Bhullar	2008	17
9	Sukhjinder Singh Garewal	2009	7
10	Ramandeep Kaur Cheema	2010	17
11	Raj Kumar Sharma	2011	17
12	Gurpreet Kaur Hansra	2012	12
13		2013
14	Upinder Singh	2014	14
15	Baldev Raj	2015	17
16		2016
17	Sandeep Singh Mann	2017	7
18	Bakhshish Singh Duggal	2018	15
19		2019
20	Gursharan Singh Sekhon	2020	15
21	Narinder Shingh Dhaliwal	2021	15
22	Rakesh Jain	2022	7
23	Lakhbir Singh Gill	2023	14
24	Gurpreet Singh Gill	2024	15
25	Gurteej Singh	2025	7
26	Ranjit Singh Rai	2026	10
27		2027
28	Appar Singh Pannu	2028	14
29		2029
30	Rajeev	2030	7
31	Harnish	2031	9
32	Gurdeep Singh	2032	3
33	Gurpreet Singh Randhawa	2033	10
34		2034
35		2035
36	Harpreet Kaur Panjeta	2036	7
37		2037
38	Gurpreet Singh	2038	2
39		2039
40	Gurpratap Singh Mann	2040	3

Edit Report: Correction in minimum lectures required. dated October 9, 2006.

Lecture Statement M. A. I. The USA

Given below is the lecture statement ending on September 19, 2006 for the class M. A. I Paper The USA held in Room no. 9 in period 4. It is for the session 2006-2007.

Total Lectures delivered were 25. The required minimum lectures were 75% of the total Delivered. The minimum lectures required were taken equivalent to 18. Those who have attended less than 18 lectures are having deficiency of lectures.

Sr. no	Name	Roll no	Total attended	Remarks
1	Amarpreet Singh Gill	1701	8
2	Navdeep Singh Gill	1702	14
3	Sukhbir Singh Garewal	1703	20
4	Maninder Singh Khangura	1704	20
5	Amandeep Singh Aulakh	1705	17
6		1706	0
7		1707	0
8	Dharampal Singh	1708	1
9	Bhupinder Jeet Singh Mangat	1709	4
10		1710	0
11	Ranveer Singh Gill	1711	1
12	Kuldeep Singh Panjeta	1712	15
13	Sukhbir Singh	1713	18
14	Harpreet Singh Garewal	1714	11
15		1715
16	Manpreet Singh Gill	1716	14
17		1717
18	Paramjeet Singh Sidhu	1718	20
19	Didar Singh	1719	7
20	Devinder Singh Deol	1720	17
21		1721
22		1722
23	Satnam Singh Sandhu	1723	19
24	Dinesh Kumar Verma	1724	18
25		1725
26	Manjeet Singh	1726	1
27	Amandeep Singh Gill	1727	19
28	Parminder	1728	5
29	Inderveer Singh	1729	5
30	Nirmal Singh	1730	25
31	Pawandeep Kaur Cheema	1731	17
32	Avtar Singh Sekhon	1732	21
33	Iqbaljit Singh	1733	7
34	Beant Kaur Garewal	1734	16
35	Rupinder Kaur Garewal	1735	16
36	Harjaab Singh Dhaliwal	1736	6
37	Parminder Singh	1737	16
38	Harvinder Singh	1738	16
39		1739
40	Gurjeet Singh Khera	1740	12
41	Sukhbir Singh Thind	1741	10
42		1742
43	Devinderpal Singh	1743	16
44		1744
45	Yadvinder Singh Garewal	1745	12
46	Mawchel Singh Garewal	1746	2
47	Hardeep Singh Dhaliwal	1747	7
48	Jagdev Singh Uppal	1748	11
49	Gurdeep Singh Sekhon	1749	17
50	Sukhpreet Singh Bhullar	1750	11
51	Rinku Bains	1751	19
52		1752
53	Sukhdeep Singh	1753	7
54		1754
55		1755
56	Tarun Handa	1756	9
57		1757
58	Amardeep Singh Bhuttar	1758	14
59	Harpreet Kaur Kainth	1759	1	Joined on 16-09-06

Justifications and Causes for Secession on Eve of Civil War

The Convention of the delegates of South Carolina met at Columbia. It then shifted to Charleston. On December 20, 1860, by an ordinance, it dissolved the union between the state of South Carolina and other States united with her under the compact entitled “The Constitution of the United States of America.” (Reference: Documenting the American South)

The same convention on December 24, 1860 dissolved its union between South Carolina and other States of North America and simultaneously by words, declared it self as a nation among the nations of the world. The resolution to this effect was titled “Declaration of the Immediate Causes which induce and justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union”.


The following observations can be made on the contents of the resolution of December 24, 1860 which gave the justification and causes of the secession.

The Convention of delegates of South Carolina mentioned to her resolution of April 26, 1852 in beginning of the resolution.

It pointed out that therein, the Convention of South Carolina had observed that there was “frequent violations of the Constitution of the United States, by the Federal government.” Through those violations, the resolution of the South Carolina observed, that the Federal Government had made “encroachments upon the reserved rights of the States. It also emphasized that it was in the year 1852 itself, that the convention of the South Carolina had worked and thought on the line of secession from the union because of the violations of the Constitution of the United States by the Federal Government.

The convention of South Carolina observed with great concern that they had been showing the virtue of great forbearance but in face of frequent violations of the Constitution of Unites States America, the virtue had lost its appeal when faced with such breach of trust.

With the above mentioned forces at work, the convention of South Carolina declared that it had resumed her separate and equal place among the nations.

With that reality to live, the convention of South Carolina continued in the resolution to give words to the causes and elucidate the justifications in order to emphasize the causes that have led to that act.

The resolution first gave the justification of attaining the status of an independent state among the community of the independent nations. It emphasized that on July 4, 1776, when the thirteen colonies started the American resolutions, they stood as “free and Independent States” and they fought against the British rule with that status. Referring to that event, the resolution emphasized that the urge to undertake the revolution was guided by the basic principle which was, that when a “government becomes destructive of the ends for which it was established, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government. It was under this principle, that the colonies at that time had broken their links with the British Empire.

It tried to remember in the resolution itself that it was for the security of the states on collective level that the independent states had come under the a league by writing the Articles of Confederation and the Congress of the United States had come into existence. The war was fought by that Congress and that Congress did not retain any power which was not entrusted to it and those powers remained with the states which had come together under that Congress.

On the basis of the above arguments, the South Carolina emphasized that at that time two principles were fully accepted and practiced. The first principle was that the state had the right of self government. It was first the constitution of the states, which came into existence and the constitution of the United States had come on a later date and rectified by the states working under their own constitution at that time. The second principle that was the cause of the birth of the new independent free and self governing states was that the people of the state had the right to abolish the government which becomes destructive of the ends of which it was instituted.

It emphatically pointed out that it was in 1787 that the states sent her deputies to revise the Articles of Confederation and the existing constitution of America came into existence only then.

The secession resolution of South Carolina had pointed out that the constitution which South Carolina accepted on May 23, 1788, was in nature a compact between the states. The South Carolina had joined the compact along with eight other states. Later two more states accepted the constitution. It was after along time that rest of the two states joined in.

The acceptance of the constitution equated to a compact in which the residual powers were with the states. These states had come into existence by a Declaration of Independence granting them the status of a sovereign state. It was so recognized by Great Britain on September 3, 1783.



The main argument which ran through the resolution was that the states were free and sovereign which was granted to them by the Declaration of Independence. Further, that any form of government when becomes destructive of the ends for which it was established, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and to institute a new government.

Thirdly that the acceptance of constitution by the state was similar to the compact wherein the residual powers remained safe with the constituent state.

The South Carolina convention of December 1860 evaluated the acceptance of constitution of America by South Carolina a compact. The convention also averred in the resolution that the performance of the material part of a compact is responsibility of each party that had joined in the compact. Any breach by any one party release the other party form the obligation of honouring the terms of the compact and thereby release the other party to exercise its own judgement to determine the fact of failure with all its consequences.

With the above rationale, the South Carolina convention declared that the federal government had breached the pact and pointed out by name fourteen such states which committed the breach.

The South Carolina convention asserted that the breach had taken place in respect of the fourth Article of the constitution of America. The fourth Article stipulated that “No person held to service or labour in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but shall be delivered up, on claim of th party to whom such service or labour may be due.”

The convention also placed on the record that Virginia joined the United States or in other words accepted the constitution when the article four was enshrined in the constitution. The convention also emphasized that it was the obligation of ‘General Government’ (Federal Government) as the common agent of the parties who had joined the compact to ensure the performance of the material part of the article. The Convention named the fourteen States that violated the spirit of the article four. The convention also accused the General Government of her failure to perform the material part of the article 4 in the role of a common agent.


The states which were accused of breaching were Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa. The convention finally asserted that “the constituted compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the non-slaveholding States, and the consequence follows that South Carolina is released from her obligation.”

The Convention accused that the fourteen non-slaveholder states had openly went against the article 4 of the Federal Government. The resolution gave specific case in case of some of them.


The convention also observed with great concern that by their acts, the fourteen non-slaveholding North States had tried to damage some of the established institutions of South States. They were encouraging open insurrection against Slave Holding “South States.

On the basis of above accusations, the resolution incorporated the conclusion that, “the constituted compacts has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the Non-Slave Holding States, and the consequences follows that South Carolina is released from her obligation.”


The Convention observed that Federal Government also failed to maintain the spirit of the compact on another front. According to South Carolina, that it was the basic goal of the constitution that through its material operation, it would “form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for common defence, promote general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.”

The Convention observed that the Federal Government had failed in that goal which was enshrined in the constitution. It expressed its disapproval by putting it on records that “we affirm that these ends for which this Government was instituted have been defeated, and the Government itself has been made destructive of them by action of the non Slaveholding States.”

The resolution observed that the section of North State were “deciding upon the propriety of our (their) domestic institutions,” ‘denied the rights of property established in fifteen of the States’ that had been otherwise recognized by the constitution. The delegates of the convention observed that the North States had termed some of their established institutions which were recognised by the constitution, as sinful. They were destroying the institutions of South States by encouraging insurrection, by sending emissaries and by using books and pictures.


The Convention observed that the North States were knowingly denying their constitutional rights, destroying their established and recognized institutions and calling their institutions sinful for 25 years.

The Convention further observed that at that pint of the time that had openly “secrued to its aid the power of the Common Government.”

By making a final case in favour of the secession, the convention placed on record that, “a sectional party has found within that Article establishing the Executive Department, the means of subverting the Constitution itself.” Further, “A geographical line has been drawn across the Union….” The North States had united to elect a President of the United States, who had declared that “Government can not endure permanently half slave and half free.” The South Carolina thus expressed her stand and policy before the new president took oath of the office. The Convention also observed that it was a design of North States to subvert the Constitution by extending voting rights to such person who were incapable of becoming citizens. They had planned to use their votes to inaugurate a new policy hostile to South and destructive of its beliefs and safety.”


The Convention feared that afte 4th day of March next, the Federal Government will have become their enemy. The Federal Government, it was feared, would work on sectional lines.

The Convention observed that from then onwards, “erroneous religious beliefs” would work behind every policy decision.

The South Carolina finally wrote, “We, therefore, the People of South Carolina, by our delegates in Convention assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for rectitude of our intentions, have solemnly declared that Union, heretofore, existing between this State and other States of North America is dissolved.”


Thus the South Carolina separated herself from the rest of the Unites States of America by separating herself from the compact and the other North States. After separation, it accorded a status to itself in the following words.
“The State of South Carolina resumed her position among the nations of the world, as a separate and independent States; with full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do.” It was signed and adopted on December 24, 1860.



Summary Observations:

These are the eight major observations on the justifications and causes of secession by South Carolina on the basis of the Convention which begun on December 17, 1860 and held at Columbia and then Charleston.

1. There was violation f the Constitution by the Federal Government. The Federal Government had made encroachments on the reserved rights of the States.
2. The Convention emphasized that the very existence of the Union was on the working of the pure truth that had established them ( 13 colonies in 1776) as “as free and independent states on July 4, 1776. They attained that status on the working and exercise of the truth which the convention states as follows:
“When a government becomes destructive of the ends for which it was established, it is the right of people to alter or abolish it and to institute a new government”
3. The Articles of Confederation and later the Constitution of United States of America had left the rights not specified in their body with the states and working of those rights could be carried out by the states with full freedom and independence.
4. The Constitution of United States of America which South Carolina accepted on May 23, 1788, was in nature a compact between the states. Under that compact, the residual powers were left with the States. The Federal Government under the constitution of United States America came up as a general agent and a general government for the Union and its constituting states.
5. The joining of any state in the union was in nature a compact. The working of the compact required that all parties honour their obligation and work for the working of the material part of the compact. Any breach by any one party release the other party from the obligation of honouring the terms of the compact and thereby release the other party to exercise its own judgement to determine the fact of failure with all its consequences. As and when it is established that the compact was breached, then South Carolina was free to determine its future course of after coming out of the compact from which it was released when other parties breached the compact.
6. South Carolina observed that the breach of the compact had taken place with respect o Article 4 of the Constitution of United States of America. The act of breaking the compact had been continuously carried out by 14 North States for last 25 years. The act of breach had been done by 14 non-slaveholding North States by attacking the domestic institutions of South States, by calling their institutions as sinful and failing to fulfill their obligation with respect to Article 4 of the Constitution of the United States of America.
7. The 14 non-slaveholding North States had also tried to raise insurrection in South States. The General Government had extended them her protection in their act of damage to South State and thus failed in aim for which it had been jointly raised. The aim of the General Government was “to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for common defence, promote general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty for ourselves and our posterity.” On the contrary, the General Government had extended protection to North States in raising insurrection in South States.
8. Finally, the resolution observed that a sectional party had come up which had united the North States for damaging the domestic institution s of South states. They had drawn a geographical line between north and south states. They were guided by “erroneous religious beliefs.” They wanted to extend the right of voting to such persons, who were incapable of becoming citizens and finally they had elected a President who asserted that “Government can not endure permanently half slaves and half free.” From March 4, 18612, all the acts of General Government would be carried on sectional lines guided by erroneous religious beliefs.

Hence, South Carolina, which had already dissolved its compact with the constitution, also dissolved the union with other states.

References and Sources:

For the text of resolutions of secession by various states on the eve of Civil War, refer to: University of Tennessee as Copied by Justin Sanders from J.A. May & J.R. Faunt, *South Carolina Secedes* (U. of S. Car. Pr, 1960), pp. 76-81

For the various ordinances in original refer to Documenting the American South

Award List of M. A. I December 2005

Award List of M. A. I.
Paper: III, Opt. (i) The U. S. A. 1860 -1973,
held in December 2005, Arya College Ludhiana.

Serial No.	Roll No.	Marks
1	1701	63
2	1702	63
3	1703	52
4	1705	02
5	1706	58
6	1707	59
7	1708	25
8	1709	10
9	1710	35
10	1711	35
11	1712	26
12	1713	48
13	1716	08
14	1717	09
15	1718	07
16	1719	01
17	1720	08
18	1721	05
19	1722	09
20	1724	15
21	1725	25
22	1727	26
23	1728	13
24	1729	54
25	1731	18
26	1732	25
27	1733	35
28	1736	46
29	1737	zero
30	1738	50
31	1739	35
32	1740	45
33	1741	52
34	1742	15
35	1743	01
36	1746	25
37	1747	04
38	1748	25
39	1749	36
40	1750	37
41	1751	25
42	1753	zero
43	1754	25
44	1755	25
45	1756	01
46	1757	25
47	1758	07
48	1759	19
49	1760	28
50	1761	01
51	1762	16
52	1763	10
53	1764	18
54	1768	35
55	1769	11
56	1770	29
57	1772	zero
58	1773	02
59	1774	35
60	1775	26
61	1776	51
62	1777	50
63	1780	18
64	1781	35
65	1782	42
66	1784	55
67	1785	04
68	1787	25
69	1788	19
70	1789	50
71	1790	29
72	1792	35
73	1795	25
74	1797	40
75	1800	19
76	1803	20
77	1805	04
78	1807	13
79	1808	01

Status: To be finalized after showing the answer sheets in the class room.
Editing Report:

• Edited on March 21, 2006 whereby the marks of roll no 1702 has been shown as 63

Award List of M. A. II December 2005

Award List of M. A. II.
Paper: IV, Opt. (iii) Social and Cultural history of India upto c. 1750 – 1947 AD,
for the examination held in December 2005, Arya College Ludhiana.

Serial No.	Roll No.	Marks
1	2001	53
2	2002	28
3	2004	07
4	2006	12
5	2008	zero
6	2010	20
7	2011	17
8	2012	12
9	2013	09
10	2014	29
11	2015	35
12	2016	25
13	2017	35
14	2019	35
15	2021	29
16	2022	46
17	2023	41
18	2024	04
19	2025	26
20	2026	19
21	2027	20
22	2028	17
23	2030	29
24	2031	20
25	2032	25
26	2033	38
27	2034	38
28	2035	zero
29	2036	01
30	2037	02
31	2038	01
32	2039	39
33	2040	10
34	2041	56
35	2042	35
36	2044	35
37	2051	43
38	2052	50
39	2053	36
40	2054	37
41	2055	09
42	2056	38
43	2057	53
44	2058	49
45	2058	45
46	2060	43

Status: To be finalized after showing the answer sheets in the class room.

Lecture Statement of M. A. II Paper IV option (iii) Social & Cultural History of India upto c 1750-1947 A. D.

Lecture Statement of M. A. II Paper IV option (iii) Social & Cultural History of India upto c 1750-1947 A. D.

Roll Call for M. A. II. Paper IV. Option (iii) Social & Cultural History of India C 1750 to 1947 A. D., upto December 10, 2005 (Total Lecture delievered=53)
Serial No.	Roll No.	Lectures Attended	Shortage
1	2001	53	Nil
2	2002	26	14
3	2003	Zero	40
4	2004	09	31
5	2005	23	17
6	2006	29	11
7	2007	13	27
8	2008	13	27
9	2009	09	31
10	2010	27	13
11	2011	35	05
12	2012	25	15
13	2013	04	36
14	2014	35	05
15	2015	35	05
16	2016	53	Nil
17	2017	52	Nil
18	2018	13	27
19	2019	053	Nil
20	2020	26	14
21	2021	18	22
22	2022	53	Nil
23	2023	53	Nil
24	2024	09	31
25	2025	53	Nil
26	2026	29	11
27	2027	29	11
28	2028	12	28
29	2029	19	21
30	2030	27	13
31	2031	40	Nil
32	2032	46	Nil
33	2033	28	12
34	2034	46	Nil
35	2035	53	Nil
36	2036	27	13
37	2037	27	13
38	2038	27	13
39	2039	52	Nil
40	2040	Zero	40
41	2041	53	Nil
42	2042	17	23
43	2043	32	08
44	2044	51	Nil
45	2045	22	18
46	2046	29	11
47	2047	29	11
48	2048	29	11
49	2049	28	12
50	2050	26	14
51	2051	26	14
52	2052	53	Nil
53	2053	46	Nil
54	2054	53	Nil
55	2055	9	31
56	2056	26	14
57	2057	53	Nil
58	2058	27	13
59	2059	15	25
60	2060	13	27
61	2061	53	Nil

Lecturer Statement of USA M. A. I ending December 10, 2005.

Lecture Statement for M. A. I , opt U.S.A. Paper III

Roll Call for M. A. I. Paper U.S.A, upto December 10, 2005 (Total Lecture delievered=66)
Serial No.	Roll No.	Lectures Attended	Shortage
1	1701	66	Nil
2	1702	66	Nil
3	1703	66	Nil
4	1704	Zero	49
5	1705	Zero	49
6	1706	66	Nil
7	1707	66	Nil
8	1708	66	Nil
9	1709	12	37
10	1710	66	Nil
11	1711	66	Nil
12	1712	52	Nil
13	1713	66	Nil
14	1714	66	Nil
15	1715	Zero	49
16	1716	45	04
17	1717	55	Nil
18	1718	55	Nil
19	1719	Zero	49
20	1720	50	Nil
21	1721	50	Nil
22	1722	35	14
23	1723	Zero	49
24	1724	25	24
25	1725	26	23
26	1726	48	01
27	1727	60	Nil
28	1728	30	19
29	1729	66	Nil
330	1730	66	Nil
31	1731	35	14
32	1732	04	45
33	1733	66	Nil
34	1734	45	04
35	1735	40	09
36	1736	66	Nil
37	1737	45	04
38	1738	66	Nil
39	1739	20	29
40	1740	66	Nil
41	1741	66	Nil
42	1742	29	20
43	1743	12	37
44	1744	12	37
45	1745	10	39
46	1746	45	04
47	1747	33	16
48	1748	45	04
49	1749	63	Nil
50	1750	46	03
51	1751	57	Nil
52	1752	30	19
53	1753	Zero	49
54	1754	30	19
55	1755	40	09
56	1756	55	Nil
57	1757	45	04
58	1758	Zero	49
59	1759	45	04
60	1760	52	Nil
61	1761	59	Nil
62	1762	59	Nil
63	1763	66	Nil
64	1764	37	12
65	1765	Zero	49
66	1766	Zero	49
67	1767	20	29
68	1768	24	25
69	1769	48	01
70	1770	45	04
71	1771	Zero	49
72	1772	27	22
73	1773	11	38
74	1774	66	Nil
75	1775	30	19
76	1776	01	48
77	1777	46	03
78	1778	Zero	49
79	1779	20	29
80	1780	66	Nil
81	1781	66	Nil
82	1782	55	Nil
83	1783	17	32
84	1784	66	Nil
85	1785	30	19
86	1786	66	Nil
87	1787	61	Nil
88	1788	30	19
89	1789	34	15
90	1790	33	16
91	1791	16	33
92	1792	Zero	49
93	1793	05	44
94	1794	10	39
95	1795	35	14
96	1796	11	38
97	1797	37	12
98	1798	01	38
99	1799	07	42
100	1800	23	26
101	1801	40	09
102	1802	02	47
103	1803	30	19
104	1804	22	27
105	1805	01	48
106	1806	20	06

Special Note: The lectures submitted for roll no 1763 has been wrongly submitted as 6. They are 66. It will be get corrected by Sumir Sharma when the college opens after the winter vocations. The fault is regretted.


The lectuers of Roll no. 1806 has been counted out of 35 lectures since the day of joining during the session.

The New Deal (Basic Lecture and Notes)

New Deal, a name given to the peacetime programme of United States President Franklin Dolean Roosevelt.
It consisted of innovative measures taken between 1933 and 1938 to counteract the effects of Great Depression. No single political philosophy or set of coherent goals ever unified these disparate programmes, most of which he developed with the aid of the so-called Brain Trust.


The main theme of the New Deal was that government took over the responsibility of economic well being of the people in America. This was a new thing in American history because Americans themselves had been supporting a limited role of the government in the economy. The economic depression had brought up a situation where in the government was expected to play an active role. Therefore, the government tried to interfere in every type of the activity of the American economic sphere. It was desired by the people. It was a period of "government encouragement and supervision of economic growth".


Further, "the measures adopted during the 1930’s were of unprecedented scope and involved far-reaching changes in the relation between government and business".


The stress was on the relation between government and business.
Heading: The Hoover Administration:


Sub Heading: Hoover’s Attitude:


Hoover was not interested in increasing the role of the government in taking over the responsibility of solving the economic problems of the people. However, the economic problems of the people of America was a result of economic depression and therefore, it fell in different category. Therefore, Hoover was reluctantly forced into accepting the responsibility of solving the economic problem of the people of America.


"he was a strong believer in the virtues private enterprise and what he called "rugged individualism"".
Hanooverian Attitude towards the Depression and Government responsibility to the common man’s economic troubles:

He was totally of different view and attitude over the issue of the government responsibility of the unemployed people. He believed if the government took over the responsibility of the problem of the unemployed people they would develop the habit of looking towards Washington every time they faced such a problem. He also felt that it would increase the dictatorship of the bureaucracy. He felt that in such a situation the actual freedom would be lost to the people of America. However, on the other hand, he also felt that it was the responsibility of the government in such a situation that it should give the financial help to the business in order to save them from total collapse.


"But his willingness to give Federal aid to corporations, while denying it to starving people, inevitably caused him to appear as callously indifferent to human suffering."


The Hoover Programme:


Some of the main steps taken by Hoover for two years after the great fall in the stock exchange were as follows:
1. He increased the spending of the Federal government over the public welfare works.
2. He asked the businessmen not to cut the wages.
3. He increased the credit to the business concerns.
4. He encouraged the big business houses to continue with their activities and gave them hope that the days of profit making would soon return.
5. When he found that the monetary systems of Europe had collapsed, he allowed the deferment of the loan payment of Europe to America.
6. He also gave support to the property owners so that they could save themselves from bankruptcy.


The Congress wanted that the government should extent direct monetary help and relief directly to the effected people like the unemployed and the farmers. President Hoover did not accept this proposal.


Hoover adopted however similar relief work as per his thinking.


He established Reconstruction Finance Corporation. It gave loans to the business corporation on easy terms.


He established twelve Federal Home Loan Banks. They extended loans on easy terms to the property owners who had to pay for the mortgage terms.


He established Federal Land Banks. Such banks extended loans to the farmers to save their farms which they had mortgaged to buy more lands.


He made many changes in monetary policy of the Federal Reserve System so that the banks could extend more loans to the business corporations. The deficit of cash by the government was covered by increasing the taxes.


Hoover was not able to raise the confidence of the people of America which in contrast, Roosevelt was able to do because of his personality. It has been emphasised by many scholars that the President Hoover was quite efficient administrator and a true American in his ethics and values. However, the need of the hour was demanding some thing more from the President which he was not able to do. Roosevelt was declared very successful but there was criticism also. Even then Roosevelt was more successful even when he had basically adopted the policies of Hoover. Hoover was not able to attract the general people only because of some such features of his personality which were not any drawback of personality. They were the real features of the American man. It was only that the need of the hour was some thing different.
The Election of 1932
There were mainly negative results of the Hoover programmes. The policies had ruined the banks. The currency had become weak. The balance of payment suffered from deficit. The people had started withdrawing money from the banks. The business houses adopted many bad practices to make profit when they were being giving easy loans. The easy loans were being given to improve the economy of the country but they were interested in making more money. It was not benefiting the common man. The fear of common was increasing. The banks adopted different means to discourage the people from withdrawing money from the banks. Therefore, Hoover lost the election to democrat candidate Franklin Delano Roosevelt.


There was praise and criticism of Roosevelt way of working. However, it is done in a way of admiration for the President. The theme is that he was able to raise the faith of the people in them and the American economy. There was criticism but there were results also which could not be overlooked. Secondly, his New Deal did not deal only with the economy but also with the world situation in which he worked for the defeat of the Axis powers. Thirdly he was in favour of the common masses. It was the common people who were not happy with the policies of Hoover.


The New Dealers of Roosevelt:
Cordell Hull of Tennessee, was the Secretary of State.
Second major was Postmaster General James a. Farley.
Secreatry of treasury Henry Morgenthau
The three main New Dealers were Harold Ickes,
Secretary of the Interior, Henry A. Wallace,
Secretary of Agriculture and
Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labour.


Brain Trust: It was the group of Professors and newspapermen who advised him on legislation and wrote the speeches of the President.


The New Deal in Operation:


"the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." This was the message of the New Deal which the President Roosevelt had given in his first inaugural address.


The first step of the President was that he called the special session of the Congress and got his plan implemented.


In the next three months, number of laws were made to achieve that goal.


The main achievement of the President Roosevelt was, "during his first hundred days in office he restored the faith of the American people in their capacity to control their destiny."


Roosevelt made Henry Morgenthau as his secretary of treasury.
Secretary of agriculture was Henry a. Wallace.
Harold Ickes became the secretary of the interior.
Frances Perkins the first woman to hold a cabinet post became the secretary of labour.
Harry Hopkins was administrator of relief.


Brain Bank
Roosevelt also roped in many professors, social workers and journalists. They along with his trusted deputies, were called New Dealers. The name of prominent advisors were Prof. M. L Wilson, Prof. Adolf Berle, Raymond Moley and Rexford Tugwell.


New Deal Under Roosevelt:


Dealing with Banking Problem:


The first problem of Roosevelt was the collapse of the banking system.


The panic against Banking system had spread in the agriculture region that is the West plains. Roosevelt declared Banking Holiday. He sent experts to evaluate the banking system of agrarian regions. Then he pumped into the system one billion dollars from Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). Within ninety days from March 4, 1933, President was able to reopen the banks.


Administrative Work:


With in hundred days, Roosevelt got Congress to pass nearly fifteen new laws. These laws covered employment relief, agricultural aid, mortgage supports, industrial cooperation, banking reforms and others.


The NRA and the AAA:
NRA and AAA were the heart of New Deal. In June 1933, National Industrial Recovery Act was passed. Under it National Recovery Administration was formed. Under the Act, the major sectors of Industries were asked to form code of self-governance which was to be looked after by NRA.


General Huge Johnson was made the President of NRA.


With in the four months of the establishment of NRA, the various business groups had drafted nearly seven hundred documents on the codes which would govern their business. Both, the large business concern dominated one field of trade and the trade unions where no major business groups ruled the trade were involved in making such codes. These codes were related to prices, wages and level of competition which was to be permitted during that period.


The 7A clause of the National Reconstruction Administration (NRA) permitted the workers to organize and bargain collectively with the employers. John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers union made use of this clause effectively for the workers of the steel industry.


Agriculture Adjustment Act was passed in May 1933. It covered marketing agreements, commodity loans, export subsidies, government purchases, production restriction and currency inflation.


Under this act, Agriculture Adjustment Administration was established. During earlier months, the Administration paid farmers to destroy their crop and slaughter their animals so that to reduce the surplus and maintain prices. Then, it also directed farmers to sow crops to particular limit only in order to regulate the prices in the market. This solution was called the parity clause. This was supposed to work in a manner that the earnings of the farmers should increase to a level of their spending. This was to be achieved by controlling and maintaining prices at particular level and check them from falling.


The Agriculture Adjustment Administration was headed by George Peek and Chester Davis. They were associated with farmers associations like American Farm Bureau Federation. They asked farmer to adopt the plans given by the Administration. The work of administration had virtually brought the power to the farmers and the Federal government did not interfere as long as they were cooperating in the plans of the Administration. On the other hand, the farmers were free to adopt the plans which suited them the most.


Financial Regulation:


The finance was considered as the main cause of the depression. The bankers were accused of disowning their responsibilities in face of a crisis which was termed as the cause of the depression. The Congress investigated that the bankers had misused with the funds of the banks to indulge in the speculation in the stock market and it was termed as the cause of the great fall.


"Through the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933, Congress required banks to separate their investment in securities from normal commercial banking."


IN 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission was established. SEC regulated the working of Stock Exchanges.


The Reconstruction Finance Corporation gave easy loans to solvent banks. This brought money into banking system and banking system revived with the help of the Federal government and Federal financing.


In 1933, congress formed Federal deposit Insurance Corporation. The Corporation insured the deposit of the small savers.


The Federal government established Farm Credit Administration. The Administration gave easy loan to Farm owners who had bought land on loans.


The Federal government also formed Home Owners Loan Corporation. The Corporation also provided easy loans to the House owners who had raised their houses on loan.


Public Relief:


PWA


The public relief work was undertaken as one of the task of National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933. Under this Act, the Congress allowed the expenditure of 3.3 billion dollars for generating jobs for the unemployed. The task was achieved through Public Work Administration. The PWA was placed under Harold Ickes. He was very conscious about using the money given by the Congress.
The Civilian Conservation Corps worked commendably for first hundred days. It provided job to the unemployed. Through them, it got them work for reforestation, soil conservation, and flood control.


FERA


In order to provide the general relief, Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was established.
Under FERA, Civil Works Administration was formed. It provided relief given by FERA on local level which was based on popular participation. The CWA was headed by Harry Hopkins.


The Tennessee Valley Authority: (Highly Important as it has appeared as a separate question also. It should be covered under Rehabilitation and Recovery feature of New Deal)


"The most daring government venture of the early New Deal was the Tennessee Valley Authority."


The Tennessee Valley project has its genesis a previous debate over the government role in building of a dam at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Henry Ford had proposed to build this dam. But a Senator, George Norris of Nebraska, blocked this proposal on the argument that such a project should be carried out by the government itself. This debate had taken place during 1920s in the war days.


The Tennessee Valley project was an attempt at regional rehabilitation by the government in 1933. The project was given extensive powers. The work carried out by it was spread over seven states. It built seven dams and many canals. In addition to that, it carried the task of preserving the soil, protection against the floods and production of electricity and its distribution. The project continued for two decades.


From the beginning, it created controversy, when it started selling power on government fixed prices. It was not liked by the private power producing companies.


The main feature of the project was that it was carried by the local participation. It was started by Washington but while deciding the various projects of dams, farms and soil conservation, it did not take direction from Washington. The local authorities and groups which were associated with the project directed the course of the project. All the groups were region groups. It included Chambers of commerce, leagues of bankers, commercial farming associations and their local associates from the department of Agriculture and state agricultural colleges. The political benefits accrued from such welfare activities were enjoyed by the local groups which were associated with the project. It was a grand success in the field of local cooperation.


The Tennessee Valley project was the first step of the American Federal government to retain the public control of the power generation and distribution. It was a policy which was mooted by Senator Norris in case of Muscle Shoals power sites in 1920.


(A Revision and Point Form Coverage)


In May 1933 Congress set up the Tennessee Valley Authority.


The task of the Tennessee Valley Authority was to build and operate the dams. The second task was to sell the electricity.


The third task was to manufacture fertilizer, flood control and conservation.


All such activities were desired to improve economy and social life of the people of the valley.


The project covered seven states and benefited twenty lakh people which belonged to a poverty stricken region in America.


The Achievements of TVA:


By 1940, seven dams were completed under the TVA.


The standard of living of the people in this region improved due this investment.


The TVA had worked with the local cooperation. The local farmers and businessmen were involved. The participation was on voluntary level. Hence, it reduced the dependence on Washington. It also reduced the political interference due to voluntary local participation in the schemes of the project.


Criticism and containment:
The private businessmen did not like the success of the TVA. They argued that the projects were able to fix lesser rate because it was financed by the government. The schemes were not paying the tax and the interest.


The politicians also not liked the success of the scheme. The project did not encourage the participation and interference of the politicians.


The opposition to the scheme was undertaken by Wendell Willkie who was the president of the confederation of private companies. The government tried to counter their criticism and opposition by buying the competing business concerns on liberal rate. But the businessmen and politicians did not like the idea of the success of TVA in other parts of the country. Therefore, it remained confined to Tennessee Valley.


Set Backs to New Deal before the Second New Deal:


The hopes of 1933 for early recovery proved illusory. Many of the hastily drafted early bills were declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court. These reverses, plus increasing political opposition to Roosevelt, triggered a second flood of legislation, beginning in 1935, which some observers called the Second New Deal. Roosevelt now exploited developing class divisions, formed closer alliances with organized labour, and increasingly castigated the big-business groups that opposed his New Deal programmes.


The New Deal lost its attraction by 1935. The National Reconstruction Administration was not working rightly. The Business houses had enjoyed the use of the new codes for their benefits but not ready to extend the benefit to the workers. Even Roosevelt had lost interest in the activity of the Administration. The Roosevelt administration itself starting criticizing the working of the National Reconstruction Administration. It was mocking called National Run Around. The agricultural experiment under AAA did not bring result. The farmers were groaning that their income had not increased to the level of 1929. The country faced the food scarcity. There was drought


Formulas for Prosperity: (Source Bailyn)
These formulas were given by Huey Long of Louisiana, Charles Coughlin of Detroit and Francis E. Townsend of California. These formulas were Share our Wealth, inflation and old-age pension.


The other major problem which came up was the rise in the incidences of strikes in different trades. It was mark the end of the appeal of New Deal. There was demand for local issues which required solution.


Second New Deal 1936 Onwards


Relief and Old-Age Insurance:


IN January 1935, Roosevelt started with the program of relief works and comprehensive social security measures.


WPA


In April 1935, Congress established the Works Progress Administration (WPA). The Congress gave 5 billion dollars for this project. Harry Hopkins was made the head of WPA. It found jobs for the unemployed. It employed nearly two million people in the work of theatrical productions, road making etc. However, it proved a temporary measure.


SSA


In August 1935, the Social Security Act was passed. It turned out as a long-term measure. It provided old age pension. The fund was raised from tax on the workers wages and employers.


The employers were also taxed to provide compensation to the employed. It also provided for equal grants to the state government. It provided aid to dependent mothers, children and disabled.


The tax for the social security was burden for the poor. Secondly, the amount of compensations and aids under this act varied from state to state. A large number of different jobs were not covered under this act. It was only 1970, it covered all the employees.


NLRA


In July 1935, congress passed the National Labour Relations Act which is popularly known as Wagner Act. The Act gave recognition to the labour unions and their rights. The National Labour Relations Board was established. It conducted the elections of the labour unions in companies. It checked companies from denying right to the workers.


WPA, Social Security Act and Wagner Act were received with great emotions.
It gave hope at the bottom of society and horror at the top.


FTA (Bankead-Jones Act 1937)


In 1937, Bankhead-Jones Act, Farm Tenancy Act was passed in 1937. It organised the Farm Security Administration. It extended credit to the tenants so that they could purchase the farms they were working. The administration also organised the cooperative community for small farmers. It tried to protect the interests of small farm labourers. However, the budget of the Farm Security Administration was very small. It did not show good results.


FLSA


In 1938, the Congress passed Fair Labour Standards Act. It settled the minimum wage and overtime works wages. It banned child labour. It was based on the principle that, "the national government should protect the economic welfare of its poorer citizens".


Railroads, Shipping and Housing: (Source: Henry Bamford Parkes and Bailyn )


The main plan was to make investment in the Railway industry also.


Industry had a different scenario. There was over expansion on private basis in industry during the 1920s. There was no scope for the government for making investment in the industry. However, there were three sectors which suffered problem and needed support. These three sectors were railways, shipping and housing.


The railway suffered because of the advent of the automobiles. They were passing through heavy indebtedness. The Reconstruction Financial Corporation extended money to the railway companies so that they could modernize their infrastructure and win back their customers. The government however did not provide money to wipe out their debts.


In case of Shipping, Federal government adopted different policy. It adopted the policy of subsidizing the shipping industry. Merchant Marine Act was passed in 1936. Under the Act, Maritime Commission was established. The Commission started the project of building fifty ships every year and then to sell them to private companies for commercial operation.


The housing was having different nature of problem. The slums had increased. There was need for cheaper housing which private construction companies were not ready to provide. The private constructors suffered due to high real estate values and costly construction materials. The building unions were another big hindrance in providing cheap apartment constructed by commercial construction companies.


New Deal tackled this problem by government participation. Federal Housing Authority was established in 1934. It provided cheaper housing loans and expected the housing private commercial companies to provide the construction.


In 1937, United State Housing Authority was established. It lent money to the local governments for the construction of low cost houses. However, the efforts did not bring any appreciable results. It was only after the World War II, that the local authorities looked to this problem in a serious manner. It was then, the housing problem was solved and housing activity started in real manner and contributed to the economy.


Conclusion:

The New Deal was over, but it had permanently expanded the role of the federal government, particularly in economic regulation, resource development, and income maintenance. Although in itself it failed to stimulate full economic recovery, it provided the federal government not only with increased controls over money supply and Federal Reserve policies but also with increased understanding of the economic consequences of its own taxing, borrowing, and spending—thus helping it to limit the impact of later recessions. Many of Reforms taken during this period became major laws and established policies of American nation by 1960.


Sources:
Henry Bamford Parkes
Bailyn and five authors.
Spartacus site of John Simkin
History of America given by Embassies of America on their sites.
(No major record has been maintained while making above points. Secondly it forms a part of general bank prepared over a period of eight years. However, the main answer structure is based on Parkes and Baylin and rest of the information was just added below the headings taken from their books.)

U. S. History Site by a Teacher

History’s Happening is a site for history by a retired teacher. His name is Pete Loeser, a retired high school teacher, now living at Laytonville in Northern California near to the city of San Francisco.

The site has been located with the help of Miland Brown where a reference has been given to this site.

There is a huge list of links to other useful history sites.

For the US history student, the U. S. History link can be highly useful. (Click on the phrase U. S. History Link to reach there).

The students with English medium may find it a good solution for the notes. Secondly, the site is full of photographs which helps in understanding and comprehension of the text. Though, the administrator has used lot of graphics and backgrounds and gives a lit bit on one sheet which force the person to spend more time, yet the method is quite effective. As there is no such effort in India, (This is what I understand and I may be wrong) such a site may be highly useful and an experience in learning for the students. I insist that one should learn with the help of maps. In addition to maps, the sketches and photographs convey more.

In case U. S. history, there is abundance of material in that category. With the help of technology, a teacher may not have to depend on the authorities of the institutions to provide the best to the students. Here one can provide their students all that which is expected from a teacher. The administrator of site has tried to bring many links after an intelligent categorization.

While exploring the site and links given there, the students may not find the required titles. The Punjab University syllabus is mainly structured on such topics which are found in H. B. Parkes history. However, an intelligent student may use imagination to select the desired link.

I myself have started exploring the site. Soon I will specify which link is more relevant to the U. S. history syllabus of Punjab University Chandigarh. No doubt, there is a talk in Board of Studies to provide such type of references in the Syllabus itself along with suggestive readings. In case of U. S. history, this task may be achieved in a better way and can be completed, as this field (people and scholars of America) is more pro-active in the ICT. Secondly, they do reach the people through use of technology. There is more effective execution of Right to Information. Whereas, we have yet passed the law and it will be definitely an issue to watch in coming days. As far as Edusat is concerned I do not know what it will be like as the institutions are still buying computers. The funds are coming for it but there is no talk of uplinking. If that thing ever materilize then they may take time to learn about WiFi.

Finally do access the site. It will be definitely useful.

Comprehensive Study of India – Federal Research Division of U.S.

One should visit the following link.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html


It is the online documents of the Library of Congress of United States of America. In the header of the site, it is written thus, " Customized Research and Analytical services serving the U. S. government since 1948" (Starting of Cold War period)(Italized comments by the blogger himself).


There are ten chapters which cover the details about India from the earliest time to the present day. In the earlier chapter, the history of India is discussed in its outline. The elucidation is quite comprehensive. A person who wants a bird eye view of the whole history of India from the earliest time to the present, may find satisfied with the contents of the history portion.


For the General Studies, the candidate, who does not have history as his option, can study from here and make a good essay which may help in many possible questions in General Studies Prelims. The history is discussed in Chapter number one but covers all the main milestones (Chapter of Indian History) in history of India.


Chapter 2 is on the geography of India.


Chapter 4 is on languages, ethnicity and regionalism. The contents give the basic structure on which the personal notes can be further developed.


Chapter 5 discuss the sociological framework of the country.


Chapter 6 is on character and structure of Economy.


Chapter 8 is on Government and politics.


Chapter 9 is on foreign policy of India.


One of the most fascinating section is Bibliography. The students who are preparing from civil services may find this section very useful. The students who are interested in overall study may also find the bibliography quite interesting and useful. One can just judge the approach of getting the information about a country by another foreign country when one finds that the titles of class tenth and twelfth published by NCERT are included in the list.


The bibliography is very comprehensive and corresponding to the chapterization which has been done while giving the details of various aspects of the country. But on the whole, it turns up as one single place to decide which book can be picked to study specific aspects of the country. When one considers the gernalized outline of the syllabus of General study, the given chapterization and sub headings and then books on them can give a well defined idea and plan to a candidate to how to organise one’s study for the examination.


The students of political science and journalism must read the history of the division on the home page of the site.